About myself Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

About myself - Essay Example I have an inner steering ambition and drive towards professional excellence in this career as I always envied being at the focal point to dictate a trend. I meet my marketing targets within stipulated timelines. Others see me as a quiet individual since I never get involved in verbal exchanges with them. I like analyzing circumstances and scenarios before commenting or giving inputs about them. I am a social individual with an inner unique ability of trusting others. My inputs towards assisting colleagues immediately after completing my tasks help them in rating me as a good partner. I entrust the members I work with, with all the tasks involved within the professional line. I enjoy working and coordinating groups since teamwork adds unto my knowledge and professional understanding. Sharing of ideologies within the groups enhances and increases my socialization abilities with others. An instant case proving my special abilities in socializing with colleagues is when I acted as a mediator in a conflict resolution process among colleagues. To overcome my weakness as a quiet person, I tend to engage my colleagues in innovation competitions that help to positively shift their view about me. The competition involves consultations hence the process increases my engagement with the colleagues thereby changing their perception about me. It is every individual’s dream to be successful in what he or she does. My role in the teams is coordinating and organizing marketing platforms to attract more clients. My deeper sense in research and creativity makes me critical personnel in this profession. In addition, the socialization ability helps coordinate and organize groups as a group leader to work jointly as a team for a common goal. However, my weakness is over expectations and pressure that I pile on the various group members

Time is money Essay Example for Free

Time is money Essay Indeed, however the concepts of â€Å"time† and â€Å"money† are closely related, they are not equal. Some people complain about the lack of money, but do not know how to kill their time, while others earn decent amount of money, but cannot find a minute of free time. In the formula, â€Å"time is money† – there is great wisdom, which, however, is formulated too generally. As well as money, time is a resource. However, this is a unique resource. Time, unlike money, you cannot borrow, save, or pile it up for future use. Therefore, the problem is not how much time we have, but how we use it. People, who do not know how to manage their time, are in constant tension. Not surprisingly, the time it is never enough. Experienced businessmen say, â€Å"If you cannot manage your time, you will not be able to control anything else. † The rational organization of time can put in front of us a lot of problems, but at the same time open up tremendous prospects. People, who do not know how to manage their time, can to reflect on his past for hours and months, regretting missed opportunities. If you look objectively, it is quite pointless, because the past cannot be changed. All that we can do is to build our future. One who has wasted his time, and not studied, will not be able to pass in spite of being clever. So our success or failure depends on the right use of time. People have become famous and rich by making good use of time. Research workers and scientists use their time to improve the lot of human beings. By making proper use of their time, they become famous. So also merchants and professionals, who work hard, make a lot of money. They know how to make good use of their time. Knowing how precious time is we should never waste time, but make good use of it. Home Is Where the Heart Is I personally think that home is a small world where one lives according to his/her own rules. Its a place where you feel comfort, warmth and reliability. And I believe that its not the size of the place where you live that matters, but the way you feel about it. And if your house is not just a building for you but a place that you can call home, it means that you want to stay there as long as possible and its a place where you always want to return to. The importance of home is depicted in languages of all the nations: we say East or West, home is best , the English say My home is my castle. Home is a place that awakens the most pleasant feelings and high emotions in soul of every person. Always after a hard day I return home and think At last I came home. For me there is no place like home. Im sure that home of a person is as much a reflection of his personality, as the clothes he wears, the food he eats, the books he reads and the friends he spends his time with. Homes reflect the way of life and habits of their owners. Even after the first few minutes in our flat you can understand all hospitality and friendliness of this place and the family which lives there. Our flat is very warm and cosy, so it makes any person feel at home. Its the place where I wake up every morning to the refreshing smell of coffee from the kitchen and where every day of my life starts, thats why it is so important for me. My home, my sweet home Sometimes after a long journey I return home with such pleasure and happiness, that I feel myself like a baby that returns to its mother. I love every corner and every thing in my flat. My home is my fortress, it is my territory, my place where I feel good and comfortable. And nobody can disturb me here. If you are in Rome, do like Romans â€Å"When in Rome, do as the Romans do† is the famous axiom of St Ambrose, the very famous bishop of Milan in the 4th century. He advises that people should follow the traditional customs and decency of country where they choose to live. The knowledge about culture and customs of another country bring many benefits for immigrants. They can know the positive things they should do and the negative things they must avoid. This knowledge also makes them feel more freedom in a strange country. Nowadays, many people have been using this axiom as a motto to achieve the success in their life, especially immigrants and overseas students. However, some people do not agree with this axiom. This essay considers the statement and argues that it is correct. Some people from the opposition force are temporary visitors as overseas students or businessmen and they say it is not necessary for them to follow the customs and behaviour of their hosts. One of their reasons is since they are always busy with their works, they do not have enough time to learn all the customs and how to behave in the right way in other countries. Moreover, their time spends to study or work overseas is just about two or three years, so it is not matter whether they follow the customs and behaviour of the foreign countries where they live. However, both businessmen and overseas students cannot work or study without communication with local people. Overseas student often must contact with teacher and classmates, while businessmen often do business with local companies or local customers. Therefore, trying to get used to customs will help them to accommodate to new environment. Even if overseas students and businessmen just study and work for a short time in other countries, they still have to understand the local community. It is very helpful for their study and business. Moreover, following the custom shows the respect for local people, and it helps visitors receive the admiration from host. I agree to this statement but to some extent I disagree to this proverb. Every culture has their own ways of celebrating their happiness and sad moments. For example, in Indian culture, weddings are considered to be one of the biggest events in the family and it goes on for 3 days. If an american or British attends such events in traditional Indian wear and appreciates the culture, the local people will be more than happy to accept them and involve them in every rituals. Similarly if an Indian attends an american or British wedding happily like other american and British people, the locals will be delighted and they will accept Indian culture openly. Every culture has its positive and Negative aspects. We should accept the positive aspects , however, the negative aspect can not be ignored. Some cultures are very strict and sensitive about their religion and their way of life. For example, Muslims follow their religion strictly and their religion prohibits consumption of pork in their food. Their sentiments should be respected and they should not be offered pork in their meals. However, accepting and following other culture is a threat to our own culture as well. we tend to lose our own traditions and beliefs in an attempt to follow and embrace other cultures. Future generation will not learn their real tradition and culture and in this process, there is a chance that we will lost our own values.

HACCP Implementation In Hotel Restaurant

HACCP Implementation In Hotel Restaurant The author has selected this topic because of his interest in a future career in food and beverage industry. Part A has showed that he has good leadership and team building skills to become a leader in this filed. He feels that it would be imperative to have good understanding of food safety if he would like to be a chef after graduated from the university. In Hong Kong, there are great proportion of people went out to have their meal. According to Hong Kong centre for health protection (CHP, 2007) the number of people eating out more than five times a week are 30.2% for breakfast, 51.5% for lunch and 10.8% for dinner respectively. Having such culture of eating out, food safety should be considered as the first priority in the hospitality industry in Hong Kong, however, in recent years, food poisoning is continually increasing. According to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2007), the global incidence of food-borne diseases is difficult to estimate, but it has been reported that in 2005 alone 1.8 million people died from diarrhoeal diseases. A great proportion of these cases can be attributed to contamination of food and drinking water. In industrialized countries, the percentage of the population suffering from food-borne diseases each year has been reported to be up to 30%. In addition, contaminated food could result from improper food handling, preparation, or food storage. Although HACCP is an internationally recognized food safety management system, there are great barriers to implement such system in the hospitality industry Academic objectives of project This paper aims to achieve the following objectives: 1. To gain understanding of HACCP and its implementation in Hospitality industry. 2. To compare current academic literature on the food safety issues. 3. To identify the barriers of implementing HACCP system in Hospitality industry. 4. To identify the ways to strengthening the food safety culture within the Hospitality organization rather than focusing on creating a better safety system. Outline of sections The literature review will be divided into four parts. The fist part is about the introduction of Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point System (HACCP), including this definition and its implementation. The second part is about the barriers of implementing HACCP system in Hospitality industry e.g. practical and psychological barriers. The third part is about the organizational culture which included its definition and connection between HACCP implementation. The final part is the ways to strengthening the food safety culture. It is because having a positive food safety culture within the organization is more reliable that strictly follow the food safety management system such as HACCP. Literature Review Introduction According to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2007) Food-borne diseases or Food poisoning seem to have been increasing globally in recent years. Food poisoning can be broadly defined as the illness caused by the consumption of contaminated food or water containing various bacteria, viruses, parasites or even toxins of biochemical or chemical nature. The types of foods produced or served by a business along with the management of how they are prepared or produced are likely to contribute to the risk of a business causing food poisoning. (Griffith, 2010) Although, there are food safety management system such as Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP), the implementation of the HACCP system requires additional resources for staff training, investments on buildings and equipment, extra purchase of supplies, as well as technical support furthermore, within a business a number of sub cultures compete for priority and often the biggest rival to food safety culture is a culture of saving money (Griffith et al., 2010). The drive to cut costs at the expense of food safety maybe false economy and it should be noted that businesses identified as a source of food poisoning outbreaks can suffer significant damage to brand identity, financial losses and possibly, in up to a third of cases, bankruptcy (Griffith et al., 2010). What is HACCP? According to a recent study (Taylor, 2008)The Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) system is a science-based systematic approach which identifies critical control points in the production procedure that are essential to monitor and control product safety. HACCP is a tool to assess hazards and establish control systems that focus on prevention rather than relying on end-product testing. The system can be applied throughout the food chain from primary production to final consumption, including primary producers, food manufacturers, transport and storage operators to retail and food service outlets. The implementation of HACCP system is a sign for delivering safe food products to customers. HACCP is an internationally recognized system and is built on seven key principles: 1. Hazard Analysis: Potential biological, chemical and physical hazards must be evaluated for each ingredient and at each step of the manufacturing process. 2. Identify Critical Control Points: Those points in the process where control can be applied to eliminate or reduce an identified hazard to an acceptable level. 3. Establish Critical Limits: Defined as the maximum or minimum parameter that must be met to eliminate or reduce the hazard to an acceptable limit. 4. Establish Monitoring Requirements: Used to assess whether the critical limits are met and to establish records for verification. 5: Establish Corrective Actions: The actions taken to bring a CCP back under control and the steps taken to prevent further contamination of the product as well as the steps taken to prevent the distribution of potentially contaminated product. 6: Establish Verification Procedures: Verification assures the plan is effectively implemented and followed. 7: Establish Record Keeping and Documentation Procedures: Includes record retention of types of records kept such as the hazard analysis, the HACCP plan, support documentation and operational records. By focussing inspection at CCPs, HACCP improves the scientific basis for safety and control processes. A CCP is any point in the chain of food production from raw materials to finished product where the loss of control could result in unacceptable food safety risk (Pierson and Corlett, 1992). Monitoring of CCPs is done best by using indicators that can be measured easily. This focus on measurable indicators provides a more cost-effective approach to control than product sampling and testing, which is more expensive and may not provide timely results. This is especially important for foodborne microbial pathogens, because their incidence is low and the costs of testing are high. It is important to recognise that HACCP is not designed to replace management decisions weighing potential benefits from product qualities against costs, or the value of improved safety versus the costs of achieving it. HAC CP facilitates improved product safety, but management has the discretion to determine what the final product quality will be. These issues enter into the firms deliberations in determining CCPs and tolerance limits at CCPs. (The economic) HACCP was originally developed as a quality control tool in food processing, where branded product liability creates industry incentives for hazard control. It was intended to be flexible enough to adapt to different firms, plants, or processes within plants. Its application as a regulatory standard to an entire industry or sector, or at different stages in the supply chain, is necessarily different. (Unnevehr and Jensen 1999), Why is HACCP important? The Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) is a food safety management system that is currently promoted internationally because it enables food business operators to control food safety risks at all points along the production line, rather than waiting for microbiological testing of the final product (Tuominen et al., 2003). It regarded as the most effective way to achieve food safety is to focus on prevention of possible hazards and to improve the process (Swanson and Anderson, 2000;) The HACCP system also relies heavily on verification and documentation to ensure that food safety has not been compromised during any step. HACCP therefore provides a structure for assessing risks. HACCP therefore provides a structure for assessing risks or whatever could go wrong and putting the requisite controls in place to minimize such risks. (Stephaniem et al.,2009) The advantage of HACCP based systems is that they can be designed to include all different types of foods, their raw materials (whatever their source) and associated hazards. (Griffith, 2010) (Semos and Kontogeorgos, 2007) denoted that the implementation of the HACCP system to food processing can result in benefits to industry, government and consumers, promoting, in this way, a potential improvement of food safety and prevention of food poisoning. HACCP focus on measurable indicators provides a more cost-effective approach to control than product sampling and testing, which is more expensive and may not provide timely results. This is especially important for food-borne microbial pathogens, because their incidence is low and the costs of testing are high. Requirement of implementing the HACCP system in hospitality industry Before HACCP can be implemented, prerequisite programs (PRPs) such as good hygienic practices, staff training, and documented standard operating procedure should be well established. HACCPs effectiveness relies on the knowledge and skills of both management and staff. (Taylor, 2008), pointed out that the most important factor driving the implementation of HACCP is the employment of experienced, technically qualified persons. While flexibility appropriate to the business is important, all seven principles must be applied in the HACCP system. This takes into account the nature and size of the operation, including the human and financial resources, infrastructure, processes, knowledge, and practical constraints. The seven principles can be applied in businesses regardless of size and the nature of the operations. (Semos and Kontogeorgos, 2007) Implementation of the HACCP system requires additional resources for staff training, investments on buildings and equipment, extra purchase of supplies, as well as technical support furthermore, managers or businesses should provide adequate and appropriate facilities for food handlers to be hygienic and this can influence their perceived behavioral control. (Griffith, 2000) The efficacy of the system relies heavily on the relevant HACCP knowledge and skills, management commitment, and understanding of HACCP along with changes in attitude and organizational culture all requiring adequate training to overcome barriers related to human resources. (Adams, 2000) Considering the results as a whole, staff training was the cost with the highest mean score indicating that this cost during the development and implementation of the HACCP system was the most important cost. The second most important cost was the investments in new equipment. As has previously been mentioned, the majority of the respondents have used an external consultant to develop and implement the HACCP system in their company. Thus, it is not surprising that the cost of the external consultant is rated as the third most important cost. (Semos and Kontogeorgos, 2007) The cost of a HACCP system for most industries depends not only on the requirements of the system, but also on the improvement of the current status of food safety-related practices in the company. Considering the cost of HACCP systems, it is important to take into account the firms long-term savings derived by a potential decrease in recalling contaminated food products (Taylor, 2001). A food handlers knowledge of food safety is critical they cannot behave hygienically if they do not know how to behave and why. This has led to increased emphasis on training; however, knowledge of food safety/hygiene does not always translate into implementation of food safety practices. Training provides people with the knowledge allowing them to handle food safety when they are motivated to be hygienic (Griffith, 2010). What are the barriers in implementing the HACCP system in hospitality industry? Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) is an internationally recognised system of managing food safety (Codex, 2003) and its use is advocated in the hospitality industry. Griffith (2000) stated that one of the major problems regarding the effective implementation of HACCP is that employees in food industry often lack interest and they often have a negative attitude toward the food safety programmes. Taylor and Taylor (2004) found that the main barriers that hindered the effective HACCP implementation were due to HACCP being considered as difficult, burdensome and unnecessary. They explained that the interplay of barriers at knowledge, attitude and behavioral levels could account for the problems in effective HACCP implementation. The generated working definitions for the general barrier categories included: knowledge as a body of acquired facts; attitude as mental reaction to knowledge; and behaviour as the action taken as a result of knowledge acquisition and attitude development. Subcategories of these general barriers included awareness, familiarity and comprehension for knowledge while the subcategories for attitude major barrier comprised of agreement and commitment. Adoption and adherence were the subcategories for the last major barrier, behaviour (Barriers of HACCP team members) Furthermore, those barriers separated into two types which are practical and psychological. (Taylor, 2008) stated that there is an overwhelming range of practical and psychological barriers to the HACCP implementation in hospitality industry (Taylor et al., 2008). The practical barriers in implementing the HACCP system in hospitality industry (haccp chef) Although HACCP is an internationally recognized food safety management system, there are great barriers to implement such system in the hospitality industry. Studies have shown that the major problems identified in the Hospitality industry were: lack of knowledge, training problems, high staff turnover, large variety of products, variation in potential demand and large numbers of part-time workers (Ward, 2001) Lack of appropriate facilities has been cited as a barrier to implementation of good hygiene (Clayton et al., 2002). However even more highly cited was lack of time to be hygienic and this is likely to be even more important in food service or catering than in manufacturing. The former work to order, with customers seeking prompt service, potentially facing food handlers whilst in manufacturing businesses usually work to stock. Improving a business shift patterns and staff numbers has helped to significantly improve hygiene implementation. Managers or businesses may say that this costs too much money and this attitude directly links to the business organizational food safety culture. (Griffith, 2010) Eves and Dervisi (2005) noted that when HACCP is not properly implemented it is due to time-related constraints and mostly due to the large amount of documentation required. Bas et al. (2007) and Panisello and Quantick (2001) stated that the volume of the paperwork required is a factor that hinders the HACCP effectiveness, while Taylor and Kane (2005) and Taylor (2001) refer to difficulties or lack of validation and verification procedures. Aggelogiannopoulos et al. (2007) also mentioned some other internal barriers in implementing the quality system such as the lack of financial resources, lack of personnel, human resource limitations (insufficient skills or qualifications), time restrictions because of the short operating horizon of the business, resistance of higher-level executives to change and resistance of employees to change. (Taylor and Forte 2008) point out that The hospitality industry is predominantly made up of very small businesses with varied levels of staff training and high staff turnover. With a few exceptions, staffs lack the competence to develop a food safety management system such as HACCP. Hospitality businesses do not employ a food technologist or microbiologist in kitchens, but craftsmen who are not technically qualified to identify danger points or to use instruments such as thermocouples and digital thermometers. A skilled chef is far more capable of judging whether food is adequately cooked using more traditional methods, such as colour or texture changes in food. Second, unlike the manufacturing industry, the average hospitality outlet offers an extended product range (menu) to the customer. It would not be possible to produce a flow diagram for each product offered as required by the international HACCP Guidelines (Codex, 2003). Furthermore, the average hospitality business is highly flexible and creative and there is a higher number of products offered, less use of standard recipes and often ad hoc reworking of ingredients. Third, the first HACCP principle requires a detailed, technical hazard analysis (Codex, 2003). Not surprisingly, many caterers do not understand the technical HACCP and microbiological jargon and most often have no ability to identify critical risks in food preparation and cooking. Finally, as food is produced from a varied and complex production blueprint (menu) and the customers require immediate consumption, the production process differs considerably from that of manufacturing businesses. The working pace is variable and volatile which is unsuitable for many types of monitoring and documentation. Daily business forecasts are often unpredictable, resulting in too little or too much preliminary food preparation, and requiring flexibility to manage rather than rigid routines. These differences create strong barriers to the implementation of HACCP in the hospitality industry, and they are very difficult to overcome. The scale of the challenge can be demonstrated by analysing previous attempts to develop HACCP guidance manuals for hospitality businesses (Taylor and Forte 2008). The psychological barriers in implementing the HACCP system in hospitality industry Beside the practical barriers, psychological factors are considered as the barriers to HACCPs successful implementation in Hospitality industry. A study (Taylor, 2008) stated that the psychological barriers such as staff motivation, attitude, and behaviour to the implementation. Calls have been made for more specific research on food safety culture with the concept and its importance, poorly understood by all levels in the food industry, including middle and top management. (Griffith et al 2010) If managers have a negative attitude about following proper food safety and sanitation procedures, it will be evident to others by what they say and do. For example, if the manager of a foodservice establishment doesnt wash his hands before beginning work, how can he expect the employees to do so? Instead, if the manager demonstrates a positive attitude toward food safety through his words and action, the employees will more likely do the same. In companies with strong safety cultures, a proper attitude toward food safety is more caught than taught. (Yiannas, 2008) Food safety is not just a microbiological problem but that it also has a major behavioral component (Griffith and Redmond, 2009). It has been suggested that 97% of outbreaks traced to non-manufacturing food businesses involved a food handler error/malpractice (Howes et al., 1996). Although there was a documented HACCP system this was poor and inadequate, its content was not communicated to the employees and was not available for inspection by the environmental health officer. There was no stock rotation protocol, cleaning documentation was poor stating some items were to be cleaned daily yet the person responsible for their cleaning was only employed two days a week with cleaning of high risk areas omitted. Many procedures such as glass and pest control policies, considered essential to a meat processor of this kind, were not in place. However it is perhaps the food safety culture set by the owner/manager which gives rise to the greatest concerns. This was a culture where returned spoilt meat was repacked and re-used and where saving money had precedence over all else. Staffs were asked to work when ill and to follow the owners example of moving between high and low risk areas without a change of clothing or hand washing. The owner falsified records, misled an d lied to environmental health officers. (Griffith, 2010) The connection between Organizational culture and the HACCP implementation All businesses possess a food safety culture this can be on a continuum from positive to negative. In a positive culture, food safety is an important business objective and there is compliance with documented systems. In a negative culture, food safety is not perceived of prime importance with often other business priorities dominant (Griffith et al., 2010) and there is poor compliance with documented food safety requirements. The formation or existence of both types of culture may be managed or unmanaged. A negative culture may be the result of lack of effort or inappropriate leadership and management. In a negative culture any attempts by individuals to improve safety may be ineffective (Clayton and Griffith, 2008). Failure to comply with quality and food safety management system requirements can be both widespread and problematic. High performing organizations consistently demonstrate elevated levels of safety culture, whereas low performing organizations show a poor safety culture (Killimett, 2006). What is Organizational culture? Organizational culture is defined typically in terms of the way people think, which has a direct influence on the ways in which they behave. Organizational culture (OC) is the social or normative glue that holds an organization together. OC is an effective instrument of staff motivation leading to improved individual and organizational performance. The leadership of any type of organization has a very important inalienable responsibility in developing appropriate organizational cultures to enhance performance and job-satisfaction of organizational members. If the leadership does not put in sufficient efforts to develop a positive culture and arrest the tendencies towards negative cultures, it could be a disaster for the organization. (Anonymous, 2006) In particular, organizational culture provides employees a common frame of reference for changes in an organization. When organizations have different cultures, people have different perceptions and interpretations of organizational changes, which affect employees embracing changes. Therefore, organizational culture is known to be important for the success of projects involving any organizational changes (Weiling and Kwok, 2008) A strong organizational culture helps members develop a shared sense of who they are and provides clear values and beliefs to guide decision making and the formulation of long-term strategies (McGrath and Tobia 2008). How organizational culture overcome the barriers in HACCP implementation in the hospitality industry? The organizational culture could contribute to both success and barriers of implementing HACCP in the hotel. An organizational culture will influence how individuals within the group think about food safety, their attitudes toward food safety, their willingness to openly discuss concerns and share differing opinions, and, in general, the emphasis that they place on food safety. (Griffith et al, 2010b) Individual food handler behavior links directly to the business culture (Clayton and Griffith, 2008, Griffith et al., 2010) and potentially how management create and support the food safety culture within a business maybe the most important factor in whether a business is or is not responsible for food poisoning. Food poisoning An organization needs to make sure that employees understand the food safety performance expectations of their job and that at all levels they are held accountable for them. The word accountability generally implies that there are checks and balances being measured to make sure certain desired outcomes are being achieved. And in organizations with strong food safety cultures, this is certainly true. For example, an organization might conduct daily HACCP checks and measurements, observe employee behaviours related to food safety, and provide feedback and coaching (both positive and negative) based on the results. But in organizations with enlightened safety cultures, theyve figured out a way to transcend or go beyond accountability. Theyve figured out a way to get employees to do the right things, not because theyre being held accountable to them, but because the employees believe in and are committed to food safety. It has been said that character is what you do when youre alone and no one is watching. In organizations with enlightened food safety cultures, employees do the right thing not because the manager or customer is watching, but because they know its right and they care. Organizations with strong safety cultures know this. They take the sharing of information beyond simple food safety training. They share information often and communicate regularly with their employees about food safety using a variety of messages and mediums. They realize that what we see, what we hear, and what we read, if done effectively, can have a tremendous influence on us. If it didnt, advertisers wouldnt spend the millions of dollars they do each year trying to reach consumers. Like in commercial marketing, organizations with strong food safety cultures share information not just to impart knowledge, but to persuade their employees to action. Having an appropriate positive food safety organizational culture is essential to maintaining a successful brand. Top management need to be aware of their own role and responsibilities in culture formation and to equip their managers with the skills to create and maintain a positive food safety culture at all levels but particularly at middle management /unit level (Griffith et al., 2010). Safety culture appears to be definable and measurable in practical terms within high-performing organizations that consistently show high levels of trust, effective communication, management credibility and an overall value of safety (Killimett, 2006). A positive safety culture is said to exist in organizations that recognize the risk for human error, but act to reduce such hazards by developing professional skills that promote safe work practices (Nieva and Sorra, 2003). Top management in one country were under the impression that compliance with systems was good, staff understood the need to be hygienic and that food safety was crucial to the business. Unit managers held a different perspective which in turn differed in major ways from the views of shop floor staff who perceived the business priorities to be quite different. Effectively this arranges employees into distinct organizational levels that represent differing roles in implementing, maintaining and monitoring food safety management systems and standards. (Griffith et al, 2010b) Yiannas (2009) argues that food safety can be better achieved by strengthening the food safety culture rather than focusing on creating a bigger or better safety system. Thus a food safety culture can be viewed as the shared attitudes, values and beliefs towards the food safety behaviors that are routinely demonstrated in food handling organizations. New employees will normally adopt the dominant behaviors that appear stable throughout the organization by simply learning from colleagues and leaders when they are recruited into the business, becoming a shared responsibility by all group members. Yiannas (2009) states that organizations can choose to create a strong food safety culture. He goes on to suggest that leaders are accountable for instigating it because they have the power and influence to create a positive food safety culture and thus have the potential to reduce the global burden of food-borne disease. He postulates that creating a positive food safety culture can support this process by actually changing the thoughts, behaviors and beliefs of individuals within a group. Summary and Conclusion The Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) system is a science-based systematic approach which identifies critical control points in the production procedure that are essential to monitor and control product safety. The implementation of HACCP system is a sign for delivering safe food products to customers. It regarded as the most effective way to achieve food safety is to focus on prevention of possible hazards and to improve the process. The advantage of HACCP based systems is that they can be designed to include all different types of foods, their raw materials (whatever their source) and associated hazards. The implementation of the HACCP system to food processing can result in benefits to industry, government and consumers, promoting, in this way, a potential improvement of food safety and prevention of food poisoning. Factor Before HACCP can be implemented, prerequisite programs (PRPs) such as good hygienic practices, staff training, and documented standard operating procedure should be well established. Caterers are not qualified to identify the many hazards now present in their operations and they cannot be expected to produce their own individual HACCP plans. HACCP can become a useful management tool, but, to succeed, it must be seen by chefs as useful and easy to apply. It must be recognised as a means to avoid problems as opposed to a defence mechanism in case things go wrong. The many hazards involved in producing food, together with the critical controls necessary to make sure it is safe, need to be documented. HACCPs effectiveness relies on the knowledge and skills of both management and staff. The efficacy of the system relies heavily on the relevant HACCP knowledge and skills, management commitment, and understanding of HACCP along with changes in attitude and organizational culture all requiring adequate training to overcome barriers related to human resources. interplay of barriers at knowledge, attitude and behavioral levels could account for the problems in effective HACCP implementation. The generated working definitions for the general barrier categories included: knowledge as a body of acquired facts; attitude as mental reaction to knowledge; and behaviour as the action taken as a result of knowledge acquisition and attitude development Furthermore, there is an overwhelming range of practical and psychological barriers to the HACCP implementation in hospitality industry Although HACCP is an internationally recognized food safety management system, there are great practical barriers to implement such system in the hospitality industry. Studies have shown that the major problems identified in the Hospitality industry were: lack of knowledge, training problems, high staff turnover, large variety of products, variation in potential demand and large numbers of part-time workers Lack of appropriate facilities has be

Analysis of 1997 U.S. Macroeconomic Predictions :: essays papers

Analysis of 1997 U.S. Macroeconomic Predictions The U.S. economy ended 1996 at a blistering pace of 4.7% growth rate of real GDP in the fourth quarter. Despite this strong growth, the inflation rate remained relatively low in fact the CPI showed its lowest core growth rate in the last 34 years. This low inflation along with low unemployment finished off a very healthy year for the U.S. economy. These numbers seem to indicate a positive trend for the U.S. economy in 1997. Real GDP is expected to grow at a strong to moderate rate of 2.25%, with CPI rising around 3% and the unemployment rate between 5.25-5.5%. In order to see how these projections were arrived at it is most important to look at the factors that make up real GDP. Consumption, Investment, Government Spending, and Net Exports. When these factors are analyzed separately the overall picture of real GDP becomes clearer. The growth rate of real GDP is important because it tells us the rate that the economy is growing. Once the rate of growth is determined, we will be able to look at the predictions for interest rates, unemployment, and inflation, since all of these are heavily influenced by the growth rate of real GDP. Real GDP is the market value of all goods and services produced in a given year. It is the most important measure of growth in an economy. Since a dollar of production is equal to a dollar of income, real GDP not only gives an idea of production but also of the well being of the society in general. It is not enough simply for real GDP to rise, it must rise at a healthy rate (around 2.0%) each year in order for there to be enough jobs for new entrants into the labor force. If real GDP falls or fails to rise enough, unemployment will increase and the overall standard of living will fall. However, if real GDP rises too much inflation may occur which also lowers people’s standard living by eroding their purchasing power. In 1997, real GDP in the United States is expected to grow at an annual rate of around 2.25%. Growth is not expected to be as dramatic as the 4.7% rate of growth shown in the last quarter of 1996. But, overall the economy should show moderate to strong growth throughout the year.

Leningrad Cemetery, Winter of 1941 Analysis

Matt Cingari E 110 February 11, 2010 Sharon Olds’ â€Å"Leningrad Cemetery, Winter of 1941† is a very sad and dreary poem. This is because Olds writes about the Battle of Leningrad, a 900-day siege of Leningrad during World War II, and the lifelessness that is going on afterwards. Olds’ word choice throughout the poem is very important to the meaning of this poem. The way that she writes about this battle paints a very clear picture in my mind of what she is describing. Many times thorough the poem, Olds compares life and death many times with different comparisons.Olds starts off the poem by saying: â€Å"That winter, the dead could not be buried. †Ã¢â‚¬â„¢(1) This creates a sad tone for when the rest of the poem. She then talks about the atmosphere of the aftermath of the battle with words that help you create a very vivid picture in your head of what she is talking about. She says things like â€Å"the ground was frozen†(2), â€Å"sub-zero airâ € (5), â€Å"dark cloth† (6), and â€Å"their pale, gauze, tapered shapes†(9). To me, these descriptive words help me create a visual of what is written down because these words are sad and dark descriptive words.Olds also says: â€Å"So they were covered with something/ and taken on a child’s sled to the cemetery/ in the sub-zero air. †(3-5) When Olds says this it makes me think whether she put the word â€Å"child’s† in the poem on purpose. I think she put this in because a child’s sled is used in the winter to have fun; however, Olds says that they are using it as a way to transfer dead bodies to the cemetery. This is because she is comparing life and death by using a sled, which is supposed to be used for fun in the winter, as a transportation device of corpses.When Olds says â€Å"stiff as cocoons that will be split down the center/ when the new life inside is prepared;†(10-11) Again, Olds is comparing life and death by comparing the stiff corpses to cocoons. The ambiguity in this comparison is that the poem says that the cocoon will split down the center bringing new life when it is ready. I think she says this because when she says that when the cocoon splits to start a new life, it could mean that their new life is not here on earth, but in heaven.Though, the cocoon comparison could also mean that the battle was a turning point in the war. This is because Russia gained momentum against Germany with that victory, which did start a â€Å"new life† in the war. â€Å"A hand reaching out/ with no sign of peace, wanting to come back† (15-16) is another comparison of life to death. Olds is saying that the lifeless corpse is still making a gesture saying that the dead would return if they could at any price.She says that those people who died in the battle, the corpses, would do anything â€Å"even to the bread make of glue and sawdust, / even to the icy winter, and the siege. † (1 8-19) I think that the moral of this poem is that life is precious, and that life should never be taken for granted. I think this is because the whole poem is comparisons between life and death, and because she says that the people who have passed away would do anything possible to come back to life, even under the worst conditions, to be loved, to love, and to be with the people they love.

A Review of Qualitative Research on Teenage Smoking Habits

A Review of Qualitative Research on Teenage Smoking Habits Grand Canyon University: NRS-433V-O103 Introduction to Nursing Research September 20, 2012 Introduction The purpose of this document is to summarize the contents of the research article, explain the research methods implemented, and offer insight on how the findings contribute to nursing practice. Second, there will be an explanation of ethical considerations associated with the conduct of nursing research. Finally, the source document, â€Å"What Determines Teenagers' Smoking Behaviour? : A Qualitative Study† will be attached for review. SummaryThe articles purpose was to study smoking behavior among Malaysian teens. The specific areas of interest included: smoking initiation, cigarette consumption, intention to stop smoking, and attempts to stop smoking. The first stage of teen smoking behavior begins with casual experimentation and is followed by the maintenance phase when everyday ritual smoking is present. The fut ure dependence on smoking can be predicted by the individual’s actions during experimentation with cigarettes. Curiosity, peer pressure, and parental smoking were all reported reasons that teens decided to try cigarettes.In children less than thirteen year old, it was concluded that parental smoking played the largest role in behavior choices. This finding suggests that children are modeling the parents’ smoking behavior. However, older teens in secondary school reported peer pressure to be the reason for choices regarding cigarettes. Seventy-four percent of the participants reported that they smoked less than five cigarettes daily. This same portion or participants admitted that they smoked because they experienced physical symptoms of nicotine withdraw when they didn’t smoke daily.Consumption of cigarettes in this group was reported as a social activity among friends but mostly in secluded areas, to avoid getting caught. Most all adolescents that were active i n this study reported that they had intended to quit smoking in the future. The majority of participants had no clear plan on how they were going to stop and most had admitted to several failed attempts to stop smoking without help. Aspects to consider: relationships, athletic involvement, health concerns, lack of finances, and parental concern are all reasons that would cause a teen smoker to consider quitting.The participants that were able to stop smoking had a plan and picked a specific quit date. Methods of Study This information was collected and processed through a qualitative study. Specifically, it involved twenty-six teens from three public schools. Twenty-thee members of this sample group were smokers while three of the members had stopped smoking. Information was gathered through three focus group interviews, three in-depth interviews over twenty months, and questionnaires.The questions were asked in a non-formal conversational manner with important points or answers rec orded on a document designed to evaluate and sort information (site). The Social Cognitive Theory was used to organize collection of information and analysis. This theoretical framework was chosen based on the need for an explanation of teen smoking related to individuals, heath behaviors, and environments. The expectation is that Social Cognitive Theory would offer more insight on how these three elements would interact with each other simultaneously.Contribution to Nursing Smoking tobacco continues to be one of the top causes of preventable causes for death in America. There are 430,000 deaths, one point five million years of potential life lost, and fifty billion of lost medical debt related to tobacco use (Hollis, J. , Pollen, N,†¦ 2005). Nurses that identify younger clients at risk for tobacco can contribute to decline in morbidity related to smoking and assist in the decrease of medical debt. â€Å"The younger that youth are when they start using tobacco, the more likely they'll be addicted (CDC, 20012). The study offers insight to nursing practice for specific tailoring of a care plan for teens who smoke, parents who smoke, and how to target the education for quitting. The areas that affected teen’s interest in quitting included: athletic improvement, parents disapproval, health concerns, and lack of finances. Nurses can use the information from this study to reinforce the health promotion and benefits of being a non-smoker. The recognition of how parents affect smoking behaviors will aid the nurse in preparing education that is directed at the entire family to deter childhood and teen smoking.The contribution to patient care can be seen with health promotion assessment use. The conclusions were clear about teens needing a plan to quit after they reached the maintenance phase of smoking. This result alerts nurses to assess smoking in younger adolescence and offer assistance with smoking cessation. Ethical Issues First, The Research and Ethi c Committee of University Kebangsaan Malaysia gave approval before the study was started. Second, The Ministry of Education Malaysia offered authorization for interviews in the school system for children who were not involved in some type of major examination.Third, all of the teens along with parents provided a written and signed consent for participation. The confidentiality of current smoking status was kept intact and privacy was maintained. Lastly, at the conclusions of each interview the teens were offered smoking cession counseling at a doctor’s clinic. To ensure reliability of the study, several schools were used and different types of data collection utilized. There was self-reflexivity in minimizing opinions of the researchers. Validation was offered by minimal prompting, statement clarification, and rephrasing of questions. ConclusionThe study identified factors like nicotine addiction, personal, and environmental issues that influence of smoking behaviors in teens . These areas should be of great priority when developing smoking cessation programs for teens. The Social Cognitive Theory utilized in this study is an aid that helps nurses to understand smoking behaviors in teens and how to address barriers to break those influential factors. Since this study was done in one region of Malaysia, it may not apply to all areas outside of it. This was a very small study that cannot be applied to all cultures, geographic locations, and race.A better perspective would have been attained by selecting a wider group with random geographic location and equal gender participation. The male to female ratio for the study was unequal and this causes a shift in the standard deviation when scrutinizing the study from a statistical view. Having unequal gender numbers could cause a type I or II error which makes the information not entirely reliable (Grove, S. , 2012). References Center for Disease Control. (2012, January). We can make the next generation tobacco- free. Retrieved from http://www. cdc. gov/Features/YouthTobaccoUse/ Grove, Susan K. (2012).Statistics for Health Care Research: A Practical Workbook [1] (VitalSource Bookshelf), Retrieved from http://pageburstls. elsevier. com/books/978-1- 4160-0226-0/outline/11 Hollis, J. , Polen, M. , Whitlock, E. , Lichtenstein, E. , Mullooly, J. , Velicer, W. , & Redding, C. (2005). Teen Reach: outcomes from a randomized, controlled trial of a tobacco reduction program for teens seen in primary medical care. Pediatrics, 115(4 Part 1), 981-989. Tohid, H. , Ishak, N. d. , Muhammad, N. , Hassan, H. , & Omar, K. (2011). What determines teenagers’ smoking behavior? : A qualitative study. International Medical Journal, 18(3), 194-198. 194PSYCHIATRY Article Ititernational Medical Joumal. Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 194 – 198 , September 2011 What Determines Teenagers' Smoking Behaviour? : A Qualitative Study Hizlinda Tohid†, Noriah Mohd. Ishak^', Noor Azimah Muhammad†, Hasliza Abu Has san^', Farah Naaz Momtaz Ahmad†, Khairani Omar'* ABSTRACT Objective: The study aimed to explore smoking behaviour among Malaysian teenagers that were related to their smoking initiation, cigarette consumption, quit intention, and quit attempts. Methods: It was a qualitative study that used multiple case study design, involving 26 teenagers (23 smokers and three former smokers) from three public schools.Data was collected via questionnaires, three focus group interviews and three in-depth interviews over 20 months, A standardised semi-structured interview protocol was utilised. Results: Among the participants, 74% of them started smoking after the age of 12 years old. The majority (20/23) of the teenage smokers admitted to smoking every day and 74% of them smoked not more than 5 cigarettes a day. All of the smokers had the intention to quit but only 22 out of the 23 teenage smokers had attempted quitting. Sixty percent of these teenagers had more than three quit attempts.In gen eral, this study captured the complexity of the teenagers' smoking behaviour that could be influenced by multiple factors, including behavioural (e,g, nicotine addiction), personal (e,g, conception of smoking and quitting, curiosity, sensation seeking, knowledge about smoking cessation, stress, maintaining athletic performance, and finance,) and environmental (e,g, socialisation, peer pressure, parental smoking, parental disapproval, and boy- or girlfriend aversion) factors. Conclusions: This study described the complex and multidimensional nature of teenage smoking behaviour.The findings also correspondingly matched the Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), therefore suggesting the theory's suitability in elucidating smoking behaviour among the Malaysian teenagers, KEY WORDS smoking, teenagers, smoking initiation, cigarette consumption, quit smoking INTRODUCTION Adolescence is a crucial time in which a relatively dependent child transforms into a relatively independent adult. During this transitional period, many teenagers often experiment risky behaviours as a proclamation of their autonomy.This risky behaviour includes cigarette smoking, using illicit drugs and cirinking alcohol. (Epps, Manley, & Glynn, 1995; Kulig, & American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Substance Abuse, 2005) Experimenting with cigarette smoking is an initial stage of teenagers' smoking behaviour before it becomes established. (Nichter, Vuckovic, Quintero, & Ritenbaugh, 1997; Seguire, & Chalmers, 2000; Curry, Mermelstein, & Sporer, 2009) This smoking initiation predicts their long-term tobacco use and heavier levels of dependence. (Breslau, & Peterson, 1996; Escobedo, Marcus,Holtzman, & Giovino, 1993; Chen, & Millar, 1998) Their experimenting behaviour may be influenced by various factors including curiosity, peer pressure, parental smoking, sensation seeking, social norms for smoking, and misconception of smoking (e. g. belief that smoking provides benefits, such as coping, sense of belon ging, style, relaxation, and coolness). (Dijk, de Nooijer, Heinrich, & de Vries, 2007; Naing et at. , 2004; Khairani, Norazua, & Zaiton, 2004; Vuckovic, Polen, & Hollis, 2003; Nichter, Vuckovic, Quintero, & Ritenbaugh, 1997) These factors could cause teenagers to continue smoking.Teenage smoking maintenance is also influenced by nicotine addiction. It has been shown to be substantially significant among teenagers even with low cigarette consumption. (The National Health and Morbidity Survey, 2009; Hammond et al. , 2008; Khairani, Norazua, & Zaiton, 2004; Naing et al. , 2004; DiFranza et at. , 2007; Balch et al. , 2004; Amos, Wiltshire, Haw, & McNeill, 2006) This may be due to a very rapid loss of autonomy over tobacco even with minimal exposure to nicotine in adolescents, as demonstrated by the DANDY study. (DiFranza et al. , 2007; DiFranza et al. , 2002)Consequently, majority of teenage smokers struggle to quit smoking. (Balch et at. , 2004; McVea, Miller, Creswell, McEntarrfer, & Coleman, 2009; Amos, Wiltshire, Haw, & MeNeill, 2006; Seguire, & Chalmers, 2000) Thus, smoking behaviour among teenagers is a complex phenomenon, since it is influenced by multiple factors. This complexity requires great understanding of the behaviour from those who are involved in the care of these teenagers. This comprehension would certainly help the care providers to curb teenage smoking, which is a dangerous, addictive and destructive behaviour. US Department of Health and Human Services, 2004) Therefore, many studies have Received on Augtist 28, 2010 and accepted on November 29, 2010 1) Department of Family Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Jalan Yaacob Latif, Bandar Tun Razak, 56000 Cheras, Kuala Lutnpur, Malaysia 2) Pusat PERMATApintar Negara, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Bangl, 43600 Selangor, Malaysia 3) Setapak Health Clinic, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Correspondence to: Hizlinda Tohid (e-mails; [email  protected] com) 2011 Japan International Cultural Exchange Foundation & Japan Health Sciences UniversityTobitJ H, et al. 195 Table 1. Participants' gender, status of smoking and types of interviews TYPES OF SCHOOL MALE GENDER FcEeM. . AALIEE SMOKERS STATUS OF SMOKING NON SMOKERS FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEW TYPES OF INTERVIEWS IN DEPTH INTERVIEW SCHOOL 1 URBAN 9 3 9 3 1 3 SCHOOL 2 SEMI-URBAN 7 7 1 SCHOOL 3 RURAL 7 7 1 TOTAL 3 23 3 23 3 3 3 been carried out to examine the phenomenon of teenage smoking. In Malaysia, majority of such studies were quantitative studies. (Naing et al. , 2004; Hoi, & Hong, 2000; Khairani, Norazua, & Zaiton, 2004; Zulkifli, Rogayah, Razian, & Nyi Nyi, 2001)Nevertheless, studies that qualitatively describe Malaysian teenagers' smoking behaviour are still lacking. This deficiency may affect our understanding of the matter in great depth and holistically. Thus, this study aimed to explore smoking behaviour among Malaysian teenagers related to their smoking initiation, cigarette consumption, quit intention, and quit attempts. This information could provide us with better conception about their smoking behaviour, and subse-‘ quently eould help us to identify areas for improvement. METHODSThis study used a multiple case study design, involving 26 teenagers (23 smokers and three former smokers) from three public schools (urban, semi-urban and rural). Data was collected via selfadministered questionnaires, focus group interviews (FGI) and indepth interviews (IDI) over a period of 20 months, between 2008 until 2010. Theoretical framework This study utilised the Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) to guide the researchers in data collection and analysis. The SCT was also used for ‘analytieal generalisation' in which findings of the study were mapped against the theory.It was chosen as the study's theoretical framework due to its appropriateness and comprehensiveness in capturing a complex phenomenon of eigarette smoking that is influenced by multiple factors. (Baranowski, Perry, & Parc el, 2002) The SCT describes how individuals, environments and health behaviour interact with each other simultaneously (reciprocal determinism). (Baranowski, Perry, & Pareel, 2002) Study population Twenty six teenagers (23 boys and three girls, as shown in Table I) were selected via purposive and snowballing sampling, based on predetermined criteria.The teenage smokers and former smokers were sampled because their experience in cigarette smoking and smoking cessation was crucial for this study. These teenagers were 16 years old Malays, recruited from three different (urban, semiurban and rural) public schools from 2 states in Malaysia. Recruitment of teenagers Teenagers were recruited with the assistance from school counsellors from eaeh sehool. An agreement for no disciplinary action against teenagers who were willing to participate in this study was made with the counsellors prior to the recruitment.The students' smoking status was also eoneealed from other school staff to avoid s tigmatisation. Twelve teenagers who were selected from one of the schools were introdueed to the main researcher during an informal meeting for study briefing (refer to Table 1). The teenagers were invited to participate and were given parental packages, which comprised of an acknowledgement letter to parents, the study's information sheet, and a parental consent form. Subsequently, dates for tbe FGI and IDI were set. The completed parental eonsents forms were eolleeted prior the interviews by the school counsellor.The other 14 teenagers (7 students from each remaining school, as shown in Table 1) were reeruited by sehools' counsellors, who had training in qualitative research and were well informed about the study. Similar method of obtaining eonsent from their parents was carried out by these counsellors. Data collection Three in-depth interviews and three focus-group interviews were carried out (refer to Table 1). Prior to the interviews, all participants were given a brief overv iew of the study and the process of the interviews. Written eonsents from eaeh partieipant were also obtained.They were then required to answer a brief self-administered questionnaire on their socio-demography, smoking status and smoking behaviour (age of initiation, cigarette consumption, quit intention and quit attempts). The interviews were conducted in Malay language and eaeh interview lasted less than two hours. A semi-structured interview protocol was used to guide interviewers in questioning the participants. Anti-smoking posters and pamphlets were also used to facilitate discussion. Data analysis During eaeh interview, the conversation was recorded using digital voice recorders.The voice recording was subsequently transeribed into text by using Microsoft Office Word 2007. The transcribed text was reviewed against the audio-recordings for several times until the accuracy of the transcripts was ensured. Any uncertainty during the transcription, assistance from other researeher s was sought to ascertain its accuracy and reliability. (Yin, 2003; Yin, 1994) The transcribed text was then imported into NVIVO 7. The main researcher then analysed the data to identify themes and categories (‘thematie analysis') that would explain patterns of pereeption related to teenagers' smoking behaviour.In order to ensure high reliability of the eoding proeess, tbe coded data was eross-checked by two experts in adolescence health. Kappa was calculated by using the Cohen kappa formula to determine the reliability index, which was maintained above 0. 8. The process of transcription and analysis was repeated for every interview and ‘cross-case conclusion' was drawn between the analyses of eases. Findings of the study were also mapped against the SCT for ‘analytical generalisation'. Ettiical issues, reliability and validity Approval from the Research and Ethic Committee of Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia was obtained prior to the study.Authorisation for intervie wing teenagers from the schools was also acquired from the Ministry of Education Malaysia that limited interviewing students who were not sitting for any major examination (i. e. exeept students aged 15 and 17 years old). Apart from these, all of these teenagers and their parents were required to provide written eonsents for their participation. The confidentiality of the participants, e. g. obscuring teenagers' status of smoking from the knowledge of their parents and other sehool staffs, was also guaranteed throughout the study.Finally, medical responsibility of the main researcher in preventing smoking-related illnesses, as she was also a medieal doctor, was realised by offering teenagers consultation for smoking eessation at her clinic. This was done at the end of each interview to prevent any biased answers from the partieipants. Validity and reliability of the study were ensured via a number of methods, ineluding; (1) triangulation of sourees of data (teenagers from three diff erent sehools), as well as methods of data collection 196 What Determines Teenagers' Smokitig Behaviour? Table 2. Smoking behaviour of the teenagers who smokedTEENAGERS WHO SMOKED (N = 23) AGE OF INITIATION (YEARS) NUMBER OF CIGARRETTES SMOKED/DAY STAGE OF CHANGE NUMBER OF QUIT ATTEMPTS FGD(n = 21) IDl(n = 2) TOTAL < 12 5 1 6 > 13 16 1 17 20 2 1 3 PRE COMTEMPLATION 5 1 7 CONTEMPLATION 4 4 PLANNING II 12 0 1 1 1-3 7 1 8 S4 13 1 14 (questionnaire, three FGI and three IDI), (2) self reflexivity in minimising biases that the researchers may bring into the study due to our previous involvement in managing problematic teenagers and chronic smokers, (3) ‘procedural validity' via rephrasing of questions, elarifying of statement and minimal prompting as ecessary,(Fliek, 2009) and (4) inter-coder agreement or reliability index of above 0. 8. RESULTS Twenty three boys and three girls were interviewed (referred to Table 1), in which two of the boys and one of the girls were former smokers . The remaining 23 teenagers were smokers at the time of the interviews. These teenagers' smoking behaviour (age of smoking initiation, cigarette consumption, intention to quit and history of quit attempts) is summarised in Table 2. Age and reasons of smoking initiation Six of the 23 (26%) teenage smokers in this study started smoking during primary school (before the age of 13).The youngest age of smoking initiation was 10 years old. Nevertheless, 74% of these teenage smokers started smoking when they were in the secondary school. Most of the teenagers admitted that curiosity [â€Å"Felt curious to try (smoking)†], sensation seeking [â€Å"Just for fun†], parental modelling of smoking [â€Å"Sinee my father smokes†¦ I always watch him smoking. When he smokes, it looks pleasurable†¦ gratifying†], peer pressure [â€Å"Peer influence†], and misconception of smoking [â€Å"Style (because of smoking). Siyle†] were common factors for them to e xperiment with smoking.The teenagers who started smoking before the age of 13 claimed that curiosity and smoking modelling by parents were their main reasons for experimenting with smoking. This is contrary to those who started smoking at the age of 13 years or older. These teenagers admitted that peer pressure was the major factor for them to start smoking. Cigarette consumption Majority (20/23) of the teenage smokers in this study admitted to smoking every day and 74% of these teenagers smoked not more than 5 cigarettes a day.The teenagers believed that their daily smoking behaviour was mainly due to nicotine addiction in which they described substantial physical (e. g. tiredness, lethargy, flu-like symptoms) and psychological (e. g. slow thinking, depressed, craving) withdrawal symptoms that they experienced during smoking abstinence [â€Å"My brain feels slow†; â€Å"(If I stop smoking) I feel restless. â€Å"]. The daily smokers also admitted to smoking when they were with their friends. They claimed this behaviour could be due to a number of reasons: a) sharing the cost of cigarettes with their friends, thus tend to smoke together, as explained by a teenager: Between 14 of us. we shared RMI per person, we can get 2 big boxes of cigarettes. † b) socialisation, as one teenager noted: â€Å"When we hang around (with friends), we smoke, sis† c) peer pressure, as a teenager claimed: â€Å"When we see our friends smoked, the desire to smoke is too intense. † d) sense of belonging, for example: â€Å"We all belong to a gang who shared our cigarettes together† However, three of the current smokers admitted to smoking only once a week. They stated that they particularly smoked during stressful period [â€Å"Especially when I am doing something. When it's hard then I'll smoke. ]. A few of the teenagers reported that the national anti-tobacco policy, as well as the school regulations had restricted their smoking behaviour. These teenagers admitted to commonly smoke in secluded areas outside of public view, such as in school toilets and stairways of shopping malls. The restrictive environment for public smoking was believed to influence tbeir cigarette consumption. Intention to quit All teenage smokers in this study had the intention to quit smoking. However, 7 of them (30%) did not plan to quit within the next 6 months (in the pre-contemplation stage).Twelve of them (52%) were in the planning stage, but none had set their quit dates. The smokers diselosed that a number of factors could influence tbeir desire to quit, which included: a) impaired athletic performance, as one of the teenagers claimed: â€Å"When (I) sprint†¦ I will hecome breathless† b) boy- or girlfriend aversion, for example: â€Å"Maybe (I get the desire to stop smoking) from my girlfriend. If she said â€Å"If you do not stop smoking, we should break-up†. Huh. (I feel like to quit smoking)† c) parental disapprova l, as noted by one boy: If mother scolded me for smoking, until she cried.. I would feel ? ike I want to quit, but it was temporary only. Afterwards.. I continue smoking† d) concern about health, shown by one of the teenagers' excerpt: â€Å"Smoking can make me feel breathless, sis (that's why I feel like to quit)† e) finaneial problems, as a teenager stated: â€Å"(I) think about my parents, sis. My mother and my father are not wealthy, (when I) think about that, it could (trigger my desire to quit)† Similar motivating factors were also reported by former smokers in this study prior to their successful smoking cessation.Nevertheless, these former smokers admitted that only personalised motivating factors could render them to quit successfully. Their personalised motivators were parental disapproval [â€Å"(Parental disapproval) effective, it's effective. I've stopped smoking. â€Å"], maintaining athletic performance [â€Å"(I) stopped smoking (for athletic p erformance). I got selected (to play football for my district) afterwards†]. and saving money /†/ stopped (smoking) to save money to buy a motorbike†]. Previous quit attempts Almost all (22/23) teenage smokers in this study had attempted smoking cessation prior to the interviews.The teenagers deseribed that quitting was very difficult because of withdrawal symptoms that they experienced during the quit attempts [â€Å"(If I stop smoking) I feel restless†]. Sixty percent of the teenage smokers had actually attempted to quit four times or more. All of the teenagers claimed that they never reeeived any professional helps when they made their attempts to quit in the past. Majority of them declared that they sought their friends' advice on how to quit and among the common methods that they had tried were drinking a lot of water, chewing gums and taking sweets, as one of the teenagers said:Tohid H. et al. 197 â€Å"Usuatty (I) asked my friends how to quit. They a dvised me to drink a tot of minerat water. † DISCUSSION In Malaysia, the mean age of smoking initiation among teenage smokers is between 12-14 years old, (The National Health and Morbidity Survey, 2009; Hammond et at. , 2008; Khairani, Norazua, & Zaiton, 2004; Naing et at. , 2004) whieh is concurrent with the findings of this study. The common reasons for smoking initiation, such as curiosity, peer pressure, and parental smoking, reported by tbe participants in tbis study were similar to otber studies. (Naing et at. 2004; Kbairani, Norazua, & Zaiton, 2004) This study also suggested that curiosity and parental modelling of smoking bebaviour could be teenagers' main reasons for experimenting smoking at younger age (less tban 13 years old). In contrary, peer pressure was found to be a major factor for teenagers wbo started smoking at seeondary sehools. However, the significance of tbese associations should be confirmed by future quantitative studies. Cigarette consumption reporte d by teenagers in this study was found to be lesser tban tbose of Malaysian adults, who averagely smoke between 11 to 14 cigarettes per day. World Health Organization (WHO) Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, 2010) Tbis may be due to a number of factors as suggested by tbese teenagers, such as; (a) insufficient fund to purchase cigarettes, (b) ‘occasional' smoking, and (c) restrictive environment for smoking. Nevertheless, underreporting of smoking behaviour by these teenagers may also explain the lower estimated number of cigarettes smoked by them. Tbis is because teenagers have a tendency to report socially desirable behaviour and attitudes. (Hammond et at. , 2008; Klein, Havens, & Carlson, 2005)Insufficient fund to purebase cigarettes were described by some of the teenagers in this study, who claimed that they had to share their pocket money with their peers to buy cigarettes. Tbis is to ensure their continuous supply of cigarettes and to develop bonding among tbe peer s. (Vuckovic, Polen, & Hollis, 2003; Amos, Wiltsbire, Haw, & McNeill, 2006; Niehter, Vuckovic, Quintero, & Ritenbaugh, 1997; Seguire, & Cbalmers, 2000) Tbis practice in turn increases tbe level of acceptance by peers and promote sense of belonging tbat is pertinent to teenagers' psychosocial development. Mermelstein, 2003; Vuckovic, Polen, & Hollis, 2003; McVea, Miller, Creswell, McEntarrfer, & Coleman, 2009; Nicbter, Vuckovic, Quintero, & Ritenbaugh, 1997; Seguire, c& Chalmers, 2000) However, some teenagers in this study, who had no financial constraint because they had personal income (e. g. from part-time job or significant allowance from parents), admitted to smoke only wben socialising and facing adversities (e. g. relation problems, inability to cope witb academic or part-time job). (Vuekovic, Polen, & Hollis, 2003; Balch et at. , 2004; Amos, Wiltshire, Haw, & McNeill, 2006; Hoi, 8L Hong, 2000;Khairani, Norazua, & Zaiton, 2004; Niehter, Vuckovic, Quintero, & Ritenbaugh, 1997; Seguire, & Chalmers, 2000) These teenagers can be defined as occasional smokers, whose smoking was apparently influenced by peer pressure and tbeir inability to control themselves over smoking or to cope with stress. (Vuckovic, Polen, & Hollis, 2003; Seguire, & Chalmers, 2000; Patten et al. , 2003; Niehter, Vuckovic, Quintero, & Ritenbaugh, 1997; Mermelstein, 2003; McVea, Miller, Creswell, McEntarrfer, & Coleman, 2009; Khairani, Norazua, & Zaiton, 2004; Balch et at. , 2004; Amos, Wiltshire, Haw, & McNeill, 2006; Hoi, & Hong, 2000) Teenagers' smoking in esponse to hardship shows that smoking is their way of coping since it calms them through nicotine effects on the central nervous system. (Niebter, Vuckovic, Quintero, & Ritenbaugh, 1997; Curry, Mermelstein, & Sporer, 2009) In addition, smoking creates a social space in which they can calm down and relieve tension. (Niehter, Vuckovic, Quintero, & Ritenbaugh, 1997; Curry, Mermelstein, & Sporer, 2009) Apart from financial constraint and occasional smoking, restrietive environment for public smoking was also found to be responsible for tbe partieipants' low cigarette consumption in this study.Therefore, these teenagers commonly smoked in secluded areas outside of public view, sucb as scbool toilets and stairways of shopping malls. These findings are consistent with a number of other studies that have found restrictive environment to be effective in reducing teenage smoking. (Wakefield ct at. , 2000; Lipperman-Kreda, & Grube, 2009; Crawford, Balcb, Mermelstein, & Tobacco Control Network Writing Group, 2002) Majority of teenage smokers bave intention to quit. (Khairani, Norazua, & Zaiton, 2004; Krishnan M, 2003; Mermelstein, 2003; Naing ct at. 2004; The National Health and Morbidity Survey, 2009) Tbis was also found by tbis study, in wbich almost all teenagers who smoked eonsidered to quit smoking sometime in the future. They admitted that a number of factors could trigger tbeir quit intention, wbich include; (a) ath letic performance, (b) boy- or girlfriend aversion, (c) parental disapproval, (d) concern about bealtb, and (e) money saving. Tbese faetors were similarly found to motivate teenagers to eease smoking by previous studies. (Vuckovic, Polen, & Hollis, 2003; Mermelstein, 2003; McVea, Miller, Creswell,McEntarrfer, & Coleman, 2009; Balcb ct al. , 2004) However, tbe teenagers reported tbat these extrinsie motivations were insufficient to keep them from total smoking abstinence. Nevertbeless, excerpts made by tbe former smokers in this study suggested that teenagers would only stop smoking when they are desperate to change due to compelling personal reasons. This finding is supported by McVea et al who found only 'emotionally compelling and inescapable quit reasons' were the most motivating reasons for teenagers to stop smoking. (McVea, Miller, Creswell, McEntarrfer, & Coleman, 2009)Even though majority of tbe teenagers in this study had intention to quit smoking, they did not have any quit ting plans, not even setting their quit dates. These findings are similar to those reported by Mermestein. (Mermelstein, 2003) It is possible tbat the teenagers were; (a) not ready to quit (Balch ct al. , 2004) (e. g. some of the teenagers in the eurrent study would only quit when they experience major life transition, such as after graduation and tnarriage), (b) ambivalent about quitting (MeVea, Miller, Creswell, McEntarrfer, & Coleman, 2009; Patten et al. 2003) (e. g. a number of teenagers repetitively answered, â€Å"I am not sure† when they were asked about tbeir plan to quit smoking), and (c) very confident that they could control themselves over smoking (Niehter, Vuckovic, Quintero, & Ritenbaugb, 1997; Amos, Wiltshire, Haw, & McNeill, 2006) (e. g. a teenager assertively admitted that he could stop stroking on his own without relying on helps from other). The later seems to be related to teenagers' belief tbat ‘quitting is just a matter of will power'. (Amos, Wilts bire, Haw, & McNeill, 2006; Balcb el at. 2004) After all, these teenagers' ehanees for successful quit attempts would be reduced if they did not have strategic quitting plans. Multiple unsuccessful quit attempts were also reported by many teenagers in tbis study, in which the findings were concurrent with other studies. (World Health Organization (WHO) Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, 2010; The National Health and Morbidity Survey, 2009; Klein, Havens, & Carlson, 2005; Balch ct at. , 2004) This could be due to several reasons which can be summarised into three categories; (1) nicotine addiction,(Amos,Wiltsbire, Haw, & McNeill, 2006; Balch et al. , 2004; DiFranza et at. , 2007; DiFranza ct at. , 2007) (2) factors related to environment and situation which could promote teenage smoking (e. g. strong peer pressure, poor support from friends, smoking tnodelling by family members, stress etc, as higbligbted by tbe current study), (Balch et at. , 2004; Crawford, Balch, Mermelstein , & Tobacco Control Network Writing Group, 2002; McVea, Miller, Creswell, McEntarrfer, & Coleman, 2009; Nicbter, Vuckovic, Quintero, & Ritenbaugb, 1997) and (3) personal factors (e. g. oor risk assessment, poor knowledge, poor self efficacy and control, mi,sconception about smoking and quitting, strong belief in unassisted quit attempts etc, as found by this study) (Niehter, Vuckovic, Quintero, & Ritenbaugb, 1997; Balcb ct at. , 2004). These tbree categories appear to matcb tbe model of the Social Cognitive Theory. Overall, this study provides beneficial information for future development of interventions of smoking cessation for teenagers. Nevertheless, appropriate eontext which is similar to tbose of this study should be taken into consideration before applying such information since this is a ease study.Interviewing only teenagers aged 16 years old also limits the findings of this study. This is because teenagers at different stages of adolescence (early, middle and late) may bav e different developmental characteristics which may influence their pereeption and attitude towards cigarette smoking. Teenagers from different stages of adolescence should then be included in future studies as differences in tbeir perception, attitude and bebaviour could be explored. CONCLUSION This study bad captured tbe complexity of tbe teenagers' smoking bebaviour that could be influenced by multiple factors.Tbese faetors included behavioural (e. g. nicotine addiction), personal and environmental factors matched the Social Cognitive Theory (SCT). These 198 What Determines Teenagers' Smoking Behaviour? multiple factors should be considered in developing interventions for smoking cessation suited for teenagers. The corresponding mapping of the findings against the SCT also supports the use of the SCT in helping us to comprehensively understand teenage smoking behaviour and to overcome the influential factors. FUNDING This work was funded by the Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia UKM- GUP-TKS-07-12-097 and FF-127-2008). DECLARATION OF INTERESTS All authors declare that they have no conflicts of interests. 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